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The Pueblo peoples or Puebloans are Native Americans in the Southwestern United States who share common agricultural, material, and religious practices. Among the currently inhabited , Taos Pueblo, San Ildefonso, Acoma Pueblo, Zuni, and Hopi are some of the most commonly known. Pueblo people speak languages from four different Language family, and each pueblo is further divided culturally by kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn (maize).
Pueblo peoples have lived in the American Southwest for millennia and descend from the Ancestral Pueblo peoples. The term Anasazi is sometimes used to refer to Ancestral Puebloan. "Anasazi" is a Navajo language adoption of a Ute Indian term that translates to Ancient Enemy or Primitive Enemy, but was used by them to mean something like "barbarian" or "savage", hence the modern Pueblo peoples' rejection of it (see exonym).
Pueblo is a Spanish term for "village". When Spanish conquest of the Americas began in the 16th century with the founding of Nuevo México, they came across complex, multistory villages built of adobe, stone and other local materials. New Mexico contains the largest number of federally recognized Pueblo communities, though some Pueblo communities also live in Arizona and Texas and along the Rio Grande and Colorado River rivers and their Tributary.
Pueblo nations have maintained much of their traditional cultures, which center around agricultural practices, a tight-knit community revolving around family clans, and respect for tradition. Pueblo people have been remarkably adept at preserving their culture and core religious beliefs, including developing Syncretism Pueblo Christianity. Exact numbers of Pueblo peoples are unknown but, in the 21st century, some 75,000 Pueblo people live predominantly in New Mexico and Arizona, but also in Texas and elsewhere.
In 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published a division of Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture.Paul Kirchhoff, "Gatherers and Farmers in the Greater Southwest: A Problem in Classification", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 56, No. 4, Southwest Issue (August 1954), pp. 529–550 The Hopi, Zuni people, Keres people and Jemez each have Matrilineality kinship systems: children are considered born into their mother's clan and must marry a spouse outside it, an exogamous practice. They maintain multiple for sacred ceremonies. Their creation story tells that humans emerged from the underground. They emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are numbers considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos (other than Jemez) have a patrilineal kinship system, with children considered born into their father's clan. They practice endogamy, or marriage within the clan. They have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism. Their creation story recounts the emergence of people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west. Their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three.
Archeological evidence suggests that people partaking in the Mogollon culture were initially Hunter-gatherer who augmented their subsistence through the development of farming. Around the first millennium CE farming became the main means to obtain food. Irrigation features are common among Mimbres branch sites which date from the 10th through 12th centuries CE. The nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time; the earliest Mogollon villages were small hamlets composed of several Pit-house, houses excavated into the ground surface with a stick and thatch roofs supported by a network of posts and beams, and faced on the exterior with earth. Village sizes increased over time so that by the 11th century CE villages composed of ground level dwellings of rock and earth walls and wooden beam-supported roofs were the norm. became common during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Hohokam culture is a term borrowed from the O'odham language, used to define an archaeological culture that relied on irrigation canals to water their crops since as early as the 9th century CE. Their irrigation system techniques allowed for its adherents to expand into the largest population in the Southwest by 1300. Archaeologists working at a major archaeological dig in the 1990s in the Tucson Basin, along the Santa Cruz River, identified a culture and people that were ancestors of the Hohokam who might have occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals from the beginning of the common era to about the middle of the 15th century. Within a larger context, the Hohokam culture area inhabited a central trade position between the Patayan situated along with the Lower Colorado River and in southern California; the Trincheras of Sonora, Mexico; the Mogollon culture in eastern Arizona, southwest New Mexico, and northwest Chihuahua, Mexico; and the Ancestral Puebloans in northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, southwest Colorado, and southern Utah.
The Ancestral Puebloan culture is known for the stone and earth dwellings its people built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras, from about 900 to 1350 CE in total. The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are now protected within United States' national parks, such as Navajo National Monument, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, Mesa Verde National Park, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, and Canyon de Chelly National Monument. These villages were accessible only by rope or through rock climbing. However, the first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in the Basketmaker periods. Villages consisted of apartment-like complexes and structures made from stone, adobe mud, and other local materials, or were carved into the sides of canyon walls. Design details from Ancestral Puebloan villages contain elements from cultures as far away as present-day Mexico. In their day, these ancient towns and cities were usually multistoried and multi-purposed buildings surrounding open and . They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Ancestral Pueblo peoples. These population complexes hosted cultural and civic events and infrastructure that supported a vast outlying region hundreds of miles away linked by transportation roadways.
The events that led to the Pueblo Revolt go back at least a decade before the formal uprising began. In the 1670s, severe drought swept the region, which caused both a famine among the Pueblo and increased the frequency of raids by the Apache. Neither Spanish nor Pueblo soldiers were able to prevent the attacks by the Apache raiding parties.
The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675, when Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo Medicine man and accused them of practicing sorcery. Four of the medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When the news of the killings and public humiliation reached Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe, where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting the Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to release the prisoners. Among those released was an Ohkay Owingeh Tewa man named Popé. After being released, Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo villages. He was able to gain the support of the Northern Tiwa, Tewa, Jemez language, Hopi-Tewa, and Keres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley. The Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did the Zuni people and Hopi, 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. At the time, the Spanish population was of about 2,400 colonists, including mixed-blood , and Indian servants and retainers, who were scattered thinly throughout the region. Starting early on 10 August 1680, Popé and leaders of each of the Pueblos sent a knotted rope carried by a runner to the next Pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. Finally, on 21 August, 2,500 Pueblo warriors took the colony's capital Santa Fe from Spanish control, killing many colonizers, the remainder of whom were successfully expelled.Paul Horgan (1954), Great River vol. 1, p. 286.
In 2018, Deb Haaland became the first Pueblo woman elected to the United States House of Representatives, and later became the first Native American Secretary of the Interior from 2021-2025.
When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found in the markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarreling or dissipation ...
Maize reached the present-day Southwest via an unknown route from Mesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of a Uto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group rather than by migrants. There is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during a climatic period when precipitation was relatively high.
Pueblo peoples in the 16th century believed in Katsina spirits. Katsinas are supernatural beings who are representatives of Pueblo ancestors. They live for half the year in the underworld with the gods and spend the rest of the year with their descendants on earth. Katsinas have the power to take the form of clouds and bring rain for agricultural fields. They heal disease and also cause disease. Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maizewhite cornmeal. A man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. After the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering one town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.Paul Horgan, Great River p. 158
The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations. By the 13th century, Pueblo people crafted turkey feather blankets for warmth. "Turkeys domesticated not once, but twice", physorg.com; accessed September 2015.
Most of the Pueblos hold annual sacred ceremonies, some of which are now open to the public.
Religious ceremonies usually feature traditional dances that are held outdoors in the large common areas and courtyards, which are accompanied by singing and drumming. Unlike kiva ceremonies, traditional dances may be open to non-Pueblo people. Traditional dances are considered a form of prayer, and strict rules of conduct apply to those who wish to attend one (e.g. no clapping or walking across the dance area or between the dancers, singers, or drummers).
Since time immemorial, Pueblo communities have celebrated seasonal cycles through prayer, song, and dance. These dances connect us to our ancestors, community, and traditions while honoring gifts from our Creator. They ensure that life continues and that connections to the past and future are reinforced.Traditionally, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal afterward in a Pueblo home. Because of the numerous outside tourists who have attended these dances in the pueblos since the late 20th century, such meals are now open to outsiders by personal invitation only. Private sacred ceremonies are conducted inside the and only tribal members may participate according to specific rules pertaining to each Pueblo's religion.
One of the primary goals of Spanish colonists in the 17th century was to convert the Natives in New Spain to Christianity. Franciscan priests had prepared for a long process of conversion, building churches and missions all around Pueblo country. Some of the Pueblos' feast days are a product of that process. Feast days are held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint, assigned by Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with one of the people's existing traditional ceremonies. About the imposition of Christianity, Alfonso Ortiz, an Ohkay Owingeh anthropologist and Pueblo specialist states:
The Spanish government demanded labor and tribute from the Pueblos and vigorously attempted to suppress native religion. (...) In that year 1692 Diego de Vargas re-entered Pueblo territory, though it was not until 1696 that he gained control over the entire Rio Grande Pueblo area. The Spaniards had learned from the Pueblo Revolt and were gentler in their demands in the next century and a half. However, the Pueblos had learned as well and maintained their ceremonial life out of the view of the Spaniards, while adopting a veneer of Roman Catholicism.
The public observances may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions on the Pueblo's feast day. Some Pueblos also hold sacred ceremonies around Christmas and at other Christian holidays.
| Acoma | Áakʼu | Haakʼoh | endonym | Téwigeh Ówîngeh | Tʼoławei | Totyagiʼi | Ákookavi | Haku: |
| Cochiti | Kotyit (Western Keres: K’úutìim’é) | Tǫ́ʼgaaʼ | Kʼuuteʼgeh Ówîngeh | Kotəava | Kyʼǽǽtɨɨgiʼi | Kwitsi | Kochudi | |
| Laguna | Kʼáwáiga | Tó Łání | Kʼuʼkwʼáage Ówîngeh | Powhiaba | Kyʼóóweʼegiʼi | Kawaikaʼa | Kʼyanałana | |
| San Felipe | Kaatishtya | Tsédáá'kin | Nąnwheve Ówîngeh | Pʼatəak | Kwilegiʼi | Katistsa | Wepłabattsʼi | |
| Santa Ana | Tamaya (Western Keres: Dámáyá) | Dahmi | Shadegeh Ówîngeh | Patuthaa | Tɨ̨́dægiʼi | Tamaya | Damaiya | |
| Kewa/Santo Domingo | Kewa (Western Keres: Díiwi) | Tó Hájiiloh | Taywheve Ówîngeh | Tuwita | Tǽwigiʼi | Tuuwíʼi | Wehkʼyana | |
| Zia | Tsíiyʼa | Tłʼógí | Sia Ówîngeh | Təanąbak | Sæyakwa | Tsiyaʼ | Tsia'a | |
| Nambé | Nąngbeʼe Ôwîngeh | (Not Available) | Nomɨʼɨ | endonym | Nammuluva | Pashiukwa | Tuukwiveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) |
| Pojoaque | Pʼohsųwæ̨geh Ówîngeh | (Not Available) | Pʼohwakedze | Asʼonaʼ | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | |
| San Ildefonso | Pʼohwhogeh Ówîngeh | Tsétaʼ Kin | Pʼakwede | Pʼahwiaʼhliap | Pʼææshogiʼi | Suustapna Tewa | Dawsa | |
| Ohkay Owingeh/San Juan | Ohkwee Ówîngeh | Kin Łichíí' | (Not Available) | Pʼakapʼalʼayą | (Not Available) | Yuupaqa Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Santa Clara | Khaʼpʼoe Ówîngeh | Naashashí | Kaipʼa | Haipaai | Shǽǽpʼæægiʼi | Nasaveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Tesuque | Tetsʼúgéh Ówîngeh | Tłʼoh Łikizhí | Tyutsuko | Tutsʼuiba | Tsota | Tuukwiveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Isleta | Shiewhibak/ Tsugwevaga | Naatoohó | Dyîiwʼaʼane | Tsiiwheve Ówîngeh | endonym | Téwaagiʼi | Tsiyawipi | Kʼya:shhida |
| Picuris | Pʼįwweltha / Pe'ewi | Tókʼelé | Pikuli | Pʼįnwêê Ówîngeh | Pʼêêkwele | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | |
| Sandia | Ną'piʼąd | Kin Łigaaí | Waashuutsi | Pʼotsą́nûû Ówîngeh | Sądéyagiʼi | Payúpki | We:łuwalʼa | |
| Taos | Təotho | Tówoł | Dâusá | Pʼįnsô Ówîngeh | Yɨ́láta | Kwapihalu | Dopoliana | |
| Jemez | Wâlatɨɨwa | Maʼii Deeshgiizh | Héemʼishiitsi | Wą́ngé Ówîngeh | Híemma | endonym | Hemisi | He:mu:shi |
| Hopi | Móókwi/ Hópi | Ayahkiní | Mùutsi | Khosóʼon | Bukhiek | Hɨ́pé | endonym | Mu:kwi |
| Zuni | Shiwinna | Naashtʼézhí | Sɨ́ɨníitsi | Sųyų | Sunyiʼina | Sɨnigiʼi | Síʼooki | endonym |
| Navajo People | Diné | endonym | Tene | Wǽn Sávo | T'ełiém | Kyʼǽlǽtoosh | Tasavu | A:Machu |
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